Two main instalments were published for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. The 2008 title Grand Theft Auto IV focused on realism and detail, removing various customisation features, while adding an online multiplayer mode.[16] Grand Theft Auto V, published in 2013, featured three playable protagonists.[17] It was released to massive financial success, breaking multiple records.[18] It was later re-released with various enhancements, in 2014 for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, and in 2015 for Microsoft Windows;[19] versions for PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X and S were released in March 2022.[20]
Numerous titles in the series have received ports to mobile devices. Chinatown Wars was released for iOS in 2010 and for Android and Fire OS in 2014.[27] For their tenth anniversaries, Grand Theft Auto III and Vice City were both re-released for iOS and Android in 2011 and 2012, respectively.[28][29] In 2013, San Andreas was ported to iOS, Android and Windows Phone and RT;[30] the mobile port was later re-released for Xbox 360 in 2014, the year of the game's tenth anniversary,[31] and the following year for PlayStation 3.[32] In 2015, Liberty City Stories was ported to iOS, Android and Fire OS.[33][34]
Download GTA IV Evolution 2014
It's hard to believe, but the series' fourth entry just turned 10 years old. To commemorate the 10th anniversary of Grand Theft Auto IV, we're detailing the advancements and innovations that each of the series' entries introduced. From its humble beginnings on PS1 and PC to the staggeringly persistent sales of Grand Theft Auto V, here's a look at the evolution of GTA and how it transformed into the household name it is today. For a visual look at what we discuss here, check out the video version of the evolution of Grand Theft Auto.
At first glance it seems like a ludicrous amount of cash, but is Microsoft's reported $50 million shell-out to secure exclusive dibs on two downloadable Grand Theft Auto IV episodes really that crazy? After all, Rockstar's crime epics sell like discounted hot cakes - GTA III, Vice City and San Andreas have shifted somewhere in the region of 35 million copies between them - and no one can deny that the franchise has played a starring role in making Sony's PlayStation 2 the world's most successful console. In the minds of many gamers, GTA IV is the first essential "next-gen" title and we're willing to bet our limited edition San Andreas basketball that the period aroundthe game's releasewill see a significant spike in console sales. And Xbox 360 is in pole position to capitalize on any such spending frenzy: not only is Microsoft's machine considerably cheaper than its Sony rival, but with the Xbox maker promising "hours of entirely new gameplay" in the two subsequent episodes (the first of which is planned to hit Xbox Live in March 2008) it looks as though it's going to have the most attractive GTA IV package to tempt gamers. Ultimately, then, it's not about Microsoft recouping its money from the content that it's paid $50 million for - it's about swaying people when they're standing at the counter, cash in hand and deciding which version of GTA IV they're going to buy and, potentially, which console they are going to make a long-term investment in. So, while Microsoft's payout might sound a lot for some downloadable content, in terms of establishing a victor in the console wars we're sure that it will help Xbox 360 gain a significantadvantage over PS3. And we're sure that's something Microsoft would happily raid its piggy bank for, time and time again.
On the other hand, comparisons of microsatellite distributions in Rumexacetosa and Silene latifolia chromosomes showed that somemotifs (e.g. CAA or TAA) are strongly accumulated in non-recombining regions of the sexchromosome (Y) in both plant species (Kejnovskyet al., 2009). Similarly, a very large accumulationconsisting mainly of microsatellites on the heterochromatic W chromosome was reported ina group of fish species (Leporinus spp.) that share a ZW sex system,showing an interconnection between heterochromatinization and the accumulation ofrepetitive sequences, which has been proposed as the basis of sex chromosome evolution(Poltronieri et al.,2014).
Generally speaking, it can be affirmed that the occurrence of SSRs is lower in generegions, due to the fact that SSRs have a high mutation rate that could compromise geneexpression. Studies indicate that in coding regions there is a predominance of SSRs withgene motifs of the tri- and hexanucleotide type, the result of selection pressureagainst mutations that alter the reading frame (Zhanget al., 2004; Xuet al., 2013b). In humans, the consensus is that SSRs canalso originate in coding regions, leading to the appearance of repetitive patterns inprotein sequences. In protein sequence database studies, it was reported that tandemrepeats are common in many proteins, and the mechanisms involved in their genesis maycontribute to the rapid evolution of proteins (Kattiet al., 2000; Huntley andGolding, 2000).
SSRs have been the most widely used markers for genotyping plants over the past 20 yearsbecause they are highly informative, codominant, multi-allele genetic markers that areexperimentally reproducible and transferable among related species (Mason, 2015). In particular, SSRs are useful forwild species (i) in studies of diversity measured on the basis ofgenetic distance; (ii) to estimate gene flow and crossing over rates;and (iii) in evolutionary studies, above all to infer infraspecificgenetic relations. On the other hand, for cultivated plants SSRs are commonly used for(i) constructing linkage maps; (ii) mapping lociinvolved in quantitative traits (QTL); (iii) estimating the degree ofkinship between genotypes; (iv) using marker-assisted selection; and(v) defining cultivar DNA fingerprints (Jonah et al., 2011; Kalia et al., 2011). SSRs have been particularly useful forgenerating integrated maps for plant species in which full-sib families are used forconstructing linkage maps (Garcia etal., 2006; Souza etal., 2013; Pereira etal., 2013), and for combining genetic, physical, andsequence-based maps (Temnykh, 2001), providingbreeders and geneticists with a tool to link phenotypic and genotypic variation (seeMammadov et al., 2012; Hayward et al., 2015 for reviewarticles).
In plants, despite the fact that a high density of SSRs has been detected in 5'-UTRregions (Fujimori et al., 2003;Tranbarger et al., 2012;Zhao et al., 2014), thereare few studies verifying their effect on the regulation of gene expression.Additionally, tri- and hexanucleotide coding repeats appear to be controlled by strongermutation pressure in coding regions than in other gene regions. Consequently, in plantsthere is less allele variability in exonic SSRs than in intronic SSRs. The biaseddistribution of microsatellites and microsatellite motifs also suggests thatmicrosatellites of different types play different roles in different gene regions, suchas within promoters, introns and exons in plants (Liet al., 2004; Gemayelet al., 2012; Gaoet al., 2013).
Comparison among SSRs located in CDS, 5' UTR and 3' UTR in the transcriptome ofSargassum thunbergii, an economically important brown macroalgae hasconfirmed that UTR regions harbored more microsatellite compared to the CDS, and thelength variation of microsatellite was significantly affected by repeat motif size.Remarkably were the results relative to the function of microsatellite-containingtranscripts. After an enrichment analysis, four pathways, i.e. ubiquitin-mediatedproteolysis, RNA degradation, spliceosome and terpenoid backbone biosynthesis wereobtained, providing new insights into the function and evolution of microsatellite intranscript sequences (Liu et al.,2016).
Recently, based on the genomes available in the Phytozome database, Zhao et al. (2014) analyzed thedistribution of tandem repeats in 29 species of terrestrial plants and two species ofalgae, in which the density of repeat sequences was higher in introns and codingsequences; in plants, 5'-UTR and upstream intergenic 200 nucleotide regions had thefirst and second highest densities.
An important example of the functioning of SSRs in plants was reported by Liu et al. (2014b) using ahigh-throughput sequencing approach to characterize miRNAs and their targetedtranscripts in different tissues of sweet orange. These miRNAs were evenly distributedacross the genome in several small clusters, and 69 pre-miRNAs were co-localized withSSRs. Noticeably, the loop size of a particular pre-miRNA was influenced by the repeatnumber of the CUU codon. Another important aspect is the instability of microsatellites.Studies conducted on transgenic plants of A. thaliana showed that thisinstability increases as the plant ages, mainly due to a drop in the efficiency of DNArepair mechanisms (Golubov et al.,2010). This peculiarity means that SSR markers can be used to assess theimpacts of mutagenic contaminants. Mutagenesis induced in Pisum sativumby high doses of lead was detected based on the instability of microsatellites at alocus involved in metabolizing glutamine (Rodriguezet al., 2013).
In prospecting for SSRs, the first step consists of constructing enriched genomiclibraries and various enrichment methods have been successfully developed (Billotte et al., 1999; Maio and Castro, 2013). To construct and sequencegenomic libraries, the DNA is fragmented, ligated to adaptors and inserted into vectorsfor transforming Escherichia coli. Most protocols involve a stage ofenrichment for repetitive sequences that can be achieved using selective hybridization,PCR or both techniques (Senan et al.,2014). In enrichment by hybridization, positive clones are detected usingradioactively or chemically labeled SSR probes. Finally, these clones are selected byPCR amplification and sequencing (Semagn etal., 2006; Blair etal., 2009). Another way of enriching a library is to usebiotinized SSR probes that are captured by streptavidin-coated beads (Nunome et al., 2006). The capturedDNA is eluted, amplified, cloned and sequenced. The enriched libraries are screened toidentify clones containing SSRs, producing the subsample of repetitive sequences that isintrinsic to this approach. PCR-based methods can bias the sampling of repetitivesequences in non-enriched libraries, since fragment selection and amplification aredependent on complementarity with specific primers for the SSR and cloning vector.However, non-enriched libraries and alternative methods derived from other molecularmarkers (e.g. RAPD and AFLP) have also been used to find SSRs (see Senan et al., 2014). 2ff7e9595c
Comments